Who Was the Public Universal Friend? Living Outside the Gender Binary in Revolutionary Times

In Revolution-era America, a young heaven-sent prophet, neither male nor female and wearing androgynous robes, sermonized about sin, repentance, and salvation, spoke out against slavery, encouraged sexual abstinence, and promoted the equality of the sexes before God. Holding worship meetings around Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, this preacher attracted a fervent following and went on to found a new religious society. Meet the Public Universal Friend. 

The Public Universal Friend viewed themselves as a holy spirit inhabiting a human body, and the message they spread was not so different from the tenets of the Quaker religion. Identifying as neither male nor female, the Friend presented as gender nonconforming and rejected gendered pronouns. But while the messenger was unique; the message was not. They preached about the necessity of turning away from sin and repentance to live a Godly life, and this message enlarged the Friend’s following as they traveled to local Quaker meeting houses to speak. The Friend’s increasing influence led to their inclusion in contemporary works documenting religious movements in the revolutionary era:

“There are also a few in Rhode-Island who adhere to Jemima Wilkinson, who was born in Cumberland. It is said by those who are intimately acquainted with them, that they assert, that in October 1776, they were taken sick and actually died, and their soul went to Heaven, where it still continues. Soon after, their body was re-animated with the spirit and power of Christ, upon which they set up as a public teacher, and declares they have an immediate revelation for all they deliver. They assume the title of the Universal Friend of Mankind; hence their followers distinguish themselves by the name of Friends.”  

—Hannah Adams, Alphabetical Compendium of the Various Sects, 1784

Prior to their transformation to a preacher, the Public Universal Friend was born as Jemima Wilkinson in 1752 to a Quaker family in Rhode Island. The Friend’s early life was not particularly exceptional. Young and unmarried, they lived at home with their parents and attended local meetings of the Quakers. Some accounts of young Jemima’s life survive, but the descriptions of their personality are colored by the contemporary desire to create a narrative of a former sinner who had seen the light. In the History of Jemima Wilkinson by David Hudson, they were described as “gay and listless” in their early days. However, Jemima’s life was that of a typical Quaker colonist, with no indication of the iconic figure they would become. 

The transformation from Jemima to Public Universal Friend occurred on the morning of October 10, 1776, following a night of fevered dreams. Jemima was the victim of an illness that may have been typhus. This outbreak was said to have been brought to the shores of Providence from the Continental navy ship Columbus, and the sickness earned the nickname “Columbus fever,” according to the Friend’s own account:

“A Memorandum of the introduction of that fatal Fever, call’d in the Year 1776, The Columbus fever: Since call’d the Typhus, or the malignant fever: - The Ship call’d Columbus which sailed out of Providence in the State of Rhode Island, Being a Ship of war, on her return brought wither her Prisoners, This Awful, and allarming disease, Of which many of the inhabitants in providence died: And on the fourth of the 10th Month, it reached the house of Jeremia[ah] Wilki’son, ten Miles from Providence.”

After a life-threatening struggle with “Columbus fever,” Jemima took on a new identity. "Reborn" in their place was the Public Universal Friend, neither male nor female. According to the Friend, Jemima’s soul had passed into heaven, and God had reanimated their body with the spirit of the Friend sent to spread the Quaker gospel. From then on, the Friend began to gather followers and travel as a preacher.

Following their fever and rebirth, The Public Universal Friend dressed in a way that blended masculinity and femininity, and this drew much attention. Their clothing included a cravat and robe like traditional ministers and clergymen wore, as well as the kind of hat typically worn by Quaker men. They also didn’t wear the traditional bonnet or head covering women were expected to wear. The Public Universal Friend’s gender presentation caused curiosity and anger, and it was a radical challenge to the status quo that the Friend was not willing to be bound by the customs of the community. 

In November 1784 a pamphlet entitled “The Universal Friend’s Advice to Those of the Same Religious Society” was published, describing the religious teachings and practices of the Friend’s sect. The pamphlet advised forsaking worldly pleasures for the pursuit of spiritual growth, advocacy of the concept of human free will, and advanced the doctrine of universal salvation. They preached against slavery, in keeping with Quaker tradition. Many of the messages relied heavily on tenets of the Quaker faith but also drew from the religious traditions of mysticism. Critically, obeying the Friend’s word was also key to salvation. 

The Friend was not always welcome to speak at meetinghouses, and there were suspicious rumors about the Friend’s intent. The prophet was heavily scrutinized for their behavior and outward appearance, and for their lack of formal theological training or experience as clergy. Writing in his diary about the Friend, Reverend Ezra Stiles asserted, “her disorder is temporary Insanity or Lunacy or Dementia.” Detractors accused the Friend of believing they were the second coming of Christ himself, posing as a Messiah and taking on a role of male authority and identity. Marquis de Chastellux, a French general sent to assist the Continental Army in the Revolutionary War, observed the Friend’s followers were “impressed with the belief that she is in her person the savior of the world revived.”

Despite the open criticism, the Friend’s following continued to gather members and made a plan to establish a settlement in Western New York. The group, called the Society of Universal Friends, set about making improvements to their new town, which they called Jerusalem, but they were soon beset by land disputes and accusations of blasphemy from disgruntled former followers. However, the Ontario County Court ruled in the Friend’s favor and they were allowed to continue preaching and developing their town. 

The Public Universal Friend continued preaching until their death on July 1, 1819. The Friend’s remaining followers waited to bury the body in case of a second resurrection, and then the Friend was buried in an unmarked grave on the grounds of the Jerusalem colony according to their wishes. The Society of Universal Friends found its power waning after the death of its leader, and the group had fully disbanded by the late 1860s. 

While the Public Universal Friend may seem like a unique story, people have lived outside of the gender binary throughout American history.

One hundred years earlier, an intersex person was born in England as Thomas Hall but was raised as Thomasine Hall. A court in colonial Virginia later decreed Thomas(ine) to wear both women’s and men’s clothing, so as to not be mistaken for either a man or a woman, but to be immediately recognizable as intersex.

Deborah Sampson was a noteworthy figure who disguised herself as a man and enlisted in the Continental Army. She served for two years in Captain George Webb’s Company of Light Infantry but her sex was discovered when she was taken to a hospital after falling ill. Sampson's military service ended with an honorable discharge and a military pension. Sampson later married and had three children. While we don't know the role gender identity played in Sampson joining the military at a time when women had little economic or personal freedom, it's clear her actions transgressed accepted gender norms.

Archives and historical societies such as the Women and the American Story project from the New-York Historical Society; the Archives of Sexuality and Gender through the Gale database, and the LGBT History Records in the National Archives’ collections have dedicated themselves to exploring these hidden parts of United States history, as a full accounting of this time period is incomplete without them. Historical societies are also excellent resources, like the Yates County History Center which maintains a permanent exhibit about the Public Universal Friend. Exploring a wide variety of resources and archives specific to marginalized historical identities make the stories we tell richer and more complete.

Research guides like Life During the American Revolution: Resources for Students and Educators, put together by staff of The New York Public Library offer suggestions to expand your research and explore more diverse resources. 

>>>Go to the Guide: Life During the American Revolution: Resources for Students and Educators

• Pioneer prophetess: Jemima Wilkinson, the Publick Universal Friend by Herbert A. Wisbey, Jr.
• The Public Universal Friend: Jemima Wilkinson and religious enthusiasm in revolutionary America by Paul B. Moyer.
• History of Jemima Wilkinson, a preacheress of the eighteenth century: containing an authentic narrative of her life and character, and of the rise, progress and conclusion of her ministry

• National Women’s History Museum
• Thomasine Hall, Women and the American Story, New-York Historical Society
• Public Universal Friend, Women and the American Story, New-York Historical Society
• The Friend's Home, National Park Service